Name-calling

Students can learn about how metaphor is used as a language power technique in the standalone module Name-calling & Epithets, or as a module in Critical Language Awareness: Language Power Techniques and English Grammar. Both are freely available as open educational resources. In addition, a video introducing the concept, a list of key points, and additional resources are available below.

Video

Key points of the module:

What is name-calling?

  • Name-calling is the pejorative use of an epithet. Often used in ad hominem attacks, it is a linguistic power technique that links a person with a negative concept or quality.
  • An epithet is a descriptive name for something or someone, like a nickname, that may be used in place of, or in addition to, the person or thing’s name. It can be complimentary, neutral, or pejorative.
  • Epithets are normally nouns – often proper nouns – preceded by an attributive adjective (before the noun), with or without a determiner. They may also use an address form or title like ‘Doctor’ or ‘Miss’.

What is an epithet?

  • An epithet that includes an adjective, especially an attributive adjective, is powerful because it associates a single quality with a noun, and it leads the noun, so it is the first thing heard.
  • Epithets have their origins in given names and surnames, which began as descriptions of physical appearance, geographical origin, occupation, or as patronyms.

Why do we name-call others?

  • Name-calling has its origins as a means of building in-group social unity and distinguishing in-group members from outsiders.
  • Name-calling encourages tribalism and tribal loyalties by giving group members a reason to dismiss outsiders and reminding them what they are not.

How can name-calling lead to scapegoating?

  • Name-calling can be used by political, religious, and cultural leaders to build tribal loyalties and scapegoat or blame outsiders for their problems. Historically, leaders and their followers have leveraged the power of name-calling not only to wage war against their enemies, but to  persecute, discriminate against, and even commit genocide against internal minorities.

Additional Resources

for teaching and learning about name-calling and epithets

General resources 

Dunkling, L. (2008). A Dictionary of Epithets and Terms of Address. (n.p.): Taylor & Francis. 

  • A comprehensive dictionary of epithets and terms of address used in the English language.

Pejorative use of epithets

Crozier, W. R., & Skliopidou, E. (2002). Adult recollections of name-calling at school. Educational psychology, 22(1), 113-124.

  • In this article, the researchers surveyed 220 adults about their experiences of physical appearance based name-calling during their schooling years and found a wide range of long lasting psychological impacts that that has left on them. This article would be helpful for all teachers to better understand how students’ use of derogatory epithets for each other can have life-long effects.

Wikipedia. (2022). List of ethnic slurs and epithets by ethnicity. In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_ethnic_slurs_and_epithets_by_ethnicity&oldid=1119271925

  • This page provides a comprehensive overview of racial, ethnic and national slurs and epithets that have been used across cultures 

Eubanks, O. (2020). Here are some commonly used terms that actually have racist origins. ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/commonly-terms-racist-origins/story?id=71840410

  • This article provides some interesting examples of everyday phrases and words like “eskimo” that seem innocent but actually have deeply racist origins.

The origins of epithets

Gens Video Web Channel (Director). (2012, June 18). The History of Surnames (2nd. part: Patronymic Surnames). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7TT-uZioyk

  • A good, basic explanation of patronymic surnames

McKay, B. and K. (2022, September 4). 50+ Old Fashioned Insults We Should Bring Back. The Art of Manliness. https://www.artofmanliness.com/character/advice/50-old-fashioned-insults-we-should-bring-back/  

  • Epithets and slurs don’t stay stable. They come in and go out of fashion. This list would be interesting to someone interested in teaching about the history of such terms. 

From name-calling to scape-goating

Chomsky (Director). (2017, March 1). Scapegoating. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f5re9Ea76mE

  • Noam Chomsky’s explanation of how scapegoating works as a propaganda technique 

Big Think (Director). (2021, November 14). The ugly psychology behind scapegoating | Luke Burgis | Big Think. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cLa0zqShCcw

  • A good video explaining the psycho-social dynamics of scapegoating

NBC News (Director). (2020, April 2). Trump’s “Chinese Virus” Rhetoric Part Of A Long U.S. Tradition Of Scapegoating | Think | NBC News. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w_Dfh0CXaHY

  • A good video by NBC News that analyzes a consistent pattern of how American politicians often conceptualize diseases using propaganda techniques of racial epithets and scapegoating that make disease seem more like a personal, moral failing rather than a result of socio-ecological factors.